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Both his given and family name ultimately derive from an ancestor, Galileo Bonaiuti, an important physician, professor, and politician in Florence in the 15th century. At the time, surnames were optional in Italy, and his given name had the same origin as his sometimes-family name, Galilei. Galileo tended to refer to himself only by his given name. He was educated, particularly in logic, from 1575 to 1578 in the Vallombrosa Abbey, about 30 km southeast of Florence. When Galileo was ten, he left Pisa to join his family in Florence and there he was under the tutelage of Jacopo Borghini. When Galileo Galilei was eight, his family moved to Florence, but he was left under the care of Muzio Tedaldi for two years. These financial burdens may have contributed to Galileo's early desire to develop inventions that would bring him additional income. Michelangelo would also occasionally have to borrow funds from Galileo to support his musical endeavours and excursions. Michelangelo was unable to contribute his fair share of their father's promised dowries to their brothers-in-law, who would later attempt to seek legal remedies for payments due. The youngest, Michelangelo (or Michelagnolo), also became a lutenist and composer who added to Galileo's financial burdens for the rest of his life. Three of Galileo's five siblings survived infancy. Galileo became an accomplished lutenist himself and would have learned early from his father a scepticism for established authority.

Galileo was born in Pisa (then part of the Duchy of Florence), Italy, on 15 February 1564, the first of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, a lutenist, composer, and music theorist, and Giulia Ammannati, who had married in 1562.

During this time, he wrote Two New Sciences (1638), primarily concerning kinematics and the strength of materials, summarizing work he had done around forty years earlier. He spent the rest of his life under house arrest. He was tried by the Inquisition, found 'vehemently suspect of heresy', and forced to recant. Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632), which appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated both the Pope and the Jesuits, who had both supported Galileo up until this point. The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, which concluded that heliocentrism was foolish, absurd, and heretical since it contradicted biblical creationism. Galileo's championing of Copernican heliocentrism (Earth rotating daily and revolving around the Sun) was met with opposition from within the Catholic Church and from some astronomers. With an improved telescope he built, he observed the stars of the Milky Way, the phases of Venus, the four largest satellites of Jupiter, Saturn's rings, lunar craters and sunspots. He was one of the earliest Renaissance developers of the thermoscope and the inventor of various military compasses, and used the telescope for scientific observations of celestial objects.

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Galileo studied speed and velocity, gravity and free fall, the principle of relativity, inertia, projectile motion and also worked in applied science and technology, describing the properties of the pendulum and ' hydrostatic balances'.

Galileo has been called the father of observational astronomy, modern-era classical physics, the scientific method, and modern science. He was born in the city of Pisa, then part of the Duchy of Florence. Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei (15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642), commonly referred to as Galileo Galilei ( / ˌ ɡ æ l ɪ ˈ l eɪ oʊ ˌ ɡ æ l ɪ ˈ l eɪ/ GAL-il- AY-oh GAL-il- AY, US also / ˌ ɡ æ l ɪ ˈ l iː oʊ -/ GAL-il- EE-oh -⁠, Italian: ) or simply Galileo, was an Italian astronomer, physicist and engineer, sometimes described as a polymath.

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